Ovarian Cancer: Symptoms, Causes, Treatments,

By Mercura Wang, Medically Reviewed Jimmy Almond, M.D.

Ovarian cancer is the result of abnormal cell growth that forms a tumor in the ovaries or fallopian tubes. It is the second most prevalent gynecologic cancer in the United States and is responsible for more deaths than any other cancer affecting the female reproductive system.

In 2024, the American Cancer Society estimated that nearly 20,000 U.S. women would be diagnosed with ovarian cancer, and around 13,000 women would die from it. An American woman’s lifetime risk of developing ovarian cancer is approximately one in 87, while her risk of dying from it is around one in 130. However, ovarian cancer diagnoses have gradually decreased over the past few decades.

Many women do not experience symptoms until the cancer has reached an advanced stage.

Symptoms of ovarian cancer can be mild and easily mistaken for other conditions. It’s essential to pay attention to the frequency or number of symptoms. If the following symptoms or signs persist for three weeks or longer, or over 12 days per month, and within one year, you should see your health care provider.

Signs and symptoms include:

• Bloating.
• Ascites (fluid buildup in the abdomen that causes abdominal swelling).
• Persistent pressure in the pelvis or abdomen that causes pain.
• Digestive changes: Examples include feeling full after small meals, loss of appetite, heartburn, gas, indigestion, or nausea.
• Changes in bowel or bladder habits: This is of particular note if it occurs after age 50. Examples include constipation, diarrhea, and frequent or urgent need to urinate.
• Abnormal vaginal bleeding (e.g., heavy or irregular bleeding and bleeding between periods), particularly after menopause.
• Frequent vaginal discharge that is clear, white, or blood-tinged.
• A palpable lump in the pelvis or abdomen.
• Pain in the legs, lower back, pelvis, or abdomen.
• Pain during sex.
• Unexplained weight loss.
• Pleural effusion (fluid buildup around the lungs).
• Lymphedema (fluid buildup in the legs).
• Difficulty breathing.
• Enlarged lymph nodes in the groin.
• Fatigue.

Certain types of tumors can occasionally produce hormones that cause various other signs, such as excess estrogen, excess androgens (male hormones), and hormones similar to thyroid hormones. These effects can produce the following signs and symptoms:

• Overgrowth of uterine lining tissue
• Breast enlargement
• Excessive body hair growth
• Symptoms of hyperthyroidism (overactive thyroid)

Since many women either have no symptoms or experience vague, nonspecific symptoms, most cases of ovarian cancer are diagnosed at an advanced stage.

The two ovaries release an egg each month during the childbearing years (from puberty to menopause). Around the middle of the menstrual cycle, an egg is released from one ovary and travels down the fallopian tube to the womb. The surface of the ovary breaks to let the egg out, and if the egg isn’t fertilized, menstruation occurs, and the cycle starts again. The egg’s release damages the ovary’s surface, and during the repair process, there is a risk of abnormal cell growth each time.

Ovarian cancer occurs when genetic mutations cause changes in the DNA. These mutations affect certain genes responsible for regulating cell growth and division, leading to uncontrolled cell proliferation and cancer development. Most ovarian cancers result from genetic changes that occur over a woman’s lifetime. However, some genetic changes are inherited, leading to hereditary ovarian cancer. Between 5 percent and 15 percent of ovarian cancers are caused by inherited faulty genes.

In many cases, the exact cause of these genetic changes is unknown. However, it is believed to be a combination of genetic and environmental factors.

1. Genetic Factors

BRCA1 and BRCA2 genes help control cancer growth, but mutations in these genes, which can be inherited, increase the risk of breast and ovarian cancers. BRCA1 mutations raise the risk of ovarian cancer more than BRCA2, with BRCA1-linked ovarian cancer often developing before age 50 and BRCA2-linked cases typically after age 60. Women with a BRCA1 mutation have a 20 percent to 40 percent lifetime risk of developing ovarian cancer.

Several family cancer cases, especially breast or ovarian, may indicate a BRCA mutation. Certain populations, such as Ashkenazi Jews, are at a higher risk. Serous carcinoma is more commonly associated with BRCA gene mutations than other forms of ovarian cancer. Other genes linked to hereditary ovarian cancer include ATM, BRIP1, RAD51D, PALB2, MLH1, MSH2, MSH6, and PMS2. Genetic testing and risk assessments can help women understand their cancer risks.

2. Environmental Factors

Environmental factors can be both modifiable and unmodifiable. An example of an unmodifiable factor would be the unknowing exposure to certain environmental toxins. Illnesses and underlying conditions are also sometimes unavoidable. On the other hand, an example of a modifiable factor would be exposure to toxins in the form of smoking, which can lead to genetic mutations that result in cancer. Other modifiable factors include medication use and pregnancy status.

Women who have never been pregnant have a higher ovarian cancer risk than those who have been pregnant, possibly due to the protective effect of pregnancy-related hormones or factors affecting fertility. Additionally, women who have never given birth, even if they have been pregnant, also face a higher risk. Multiple pregnancies offer better protection against ovarian cancer, but this effect may not apply to women with a strong family history of ovarian cancer or BRCA gene mutations.

While the stages of ovarian cancer have subtypes, they can be summarized as follows:

• Stage 1: This is the least severe stage. Cancer is limited to one or both ovaries or one or both fallopian tubes.
• Stage 2: In this stage, cancer has spread to other pelvic structures, such as the uterus.
• Stage 3: As the cancer progresses, it may spread to the abdomen or the lymph nodes at this stage. The tumor may be 2 centimeters in diameter or larger at this point.
• Stage 4: In the most severe stage, cancer spreads to other more distant organs, such as the liver and spleen. In one subtype, the cancer may have spread to the lungs, and in another, it may have spread to the lymph nodes in the chest or groin.

The ovaries consist of the following three main types of cells:

• Epithelial: These cells are found on the outer surface of the ovaries and fallopian tubes.
• Germ: Germ cells are located inside the ovary and are responsible for forming eggs.
• Stromal: Ovarian stromal cells form the connective tissue within the ovary and encase the follicles.

Each cell type can give rise to a different kind of tumor. Therefore, there are three major types of ovarian cancer: epithelial, germ cell, and stromal cell.

1. Epithelial

Epithelial ovarian cancer is the most common form of ovarian cancer, accounting for about 85 percent to 95 percent of cases. It includes several subtypes of tumors, which should be treated as distinct diseases. The main subtypes include:

• Serous tumors: Serous epithelial ovarian cancer originates from the serous membrane of the ovary’s outer layer. It is often diagnosed at later stages, typically in Stages 3 or 4. Tumors can be high-grade (most common) or low-grade (rare). About 70 percent of ovarian cancer cases are high-grade and originate in the fallopian tubes. Low-grade tumors usually affect younger women, grow more slowly, and are more chemo-resistant.
• Clear cell carcinoma: This type accounts for 10 percent to 13 percent of ovarian cancer cases, is often linked to endometriosis, and is typically diagnosed in earlier stages (Stages 1 or 2), thus leading to a better prognosis.
• Endometrioid tumors: This is the third-most common type, and it’s also linked to endometriosis. It is often diagnosed early, improving prognosis.
• Mucinous tumors: These tumors account for around 3 percent to 4 percent of ovarian cancer cases. They are typically large tumors, with surgical removal associated with a good prognosis.
• Borderline ovarian tumors: These tumors are less likely to be malignant. They often affect younger women, have a high cure rate, and are treated with surgery alone. With low malignancy potential, they have a lower risk of spreading compared to fully malignant cancers.
• Unclassified: These tumor cells are undeveloped, and their origin cannot be determined.

2. Germ Cell

Germ cell tumors account for about 5 percent to 10 percent of ovarian cancer cases. While they can occur at any age, they most commonly affect women in their 20s. They are also categorized into several subtypes: dysgerminoma, endodermal sinus tumors (yolk sac tumors), and immature ovarian teratoma.

3. Stromal Cell

Stromal cell ovarian cancer is a rare type. It causes hormone-related symptoms, such as facial hair, irregular periods, postmenopausal bleeding, and a hoarse voice. These tumors typically occur in younger women, are often found early, and have a better prognosis. Granulosa cell tumors are the most common type of malignant stromal tumor.

The following factors raise a woman’s risk of developing ovarian cancer:

• Age: Approximately 50 percent of the women diagnosed with ovarian cancer are at least 63 years old. The risk of ovarian cancer rises significantly starting around age 45 and peaks in individuals between the ages of 75 and 79.
• Race: Ovarian cancer has the highest incidence rate among Native Americans, followed by whites. This is followed by rates among Hispanics, Asians, and blacks. Genetic mutations, such as BRCA1 and BRCA2, are more prevalent in specific ethnic groups. Individuals of Ashkenazi Jewish, French-Canadian, or Icelandic/Dutch descent have a higher risk of ovarian cancer due to these mutations.
• Family history: A family history of ovarian cancer involving one or more close relatives can increase the risk of developing the disease. This risk can come from either parent’s side of the family. The risk is higher if a first-degree relative (mother, sister, or daughter) has ovarian cancer, especially if diagnosed before age 50 or menopause. The risk is higher if your mother had the disease than if your daughter did. If your mother or sister has had ovarian cancer, your risk may be up to three times higher, especially if they were diagnosed at a young age. It is unclear whether the family pattern is due to chance, shared lifestyle factors, genetic risk, or a combination.
• Hormone replacement therapy (HRT): HRT uses estrogen, progesterone, or both to manage menopause symptoms, and it increases the risk of ovarian cancer. The longer HRT is used, especially beyond five years, the higher the risk. Current HRT users face a greater risk compared to those who have stopped, regardless of how long they used it.
• Underlying conditions: Endometriosis occurs when the uterine lining (endometrium) grows outside the uterus, affecting areas such as the ovaries, intestines, or bladder. Research suggests that the risk for specific types of ovarian cancer, such as clear cell and endometrioid, is higher in women with endometriosis. Additionally, diabetes increases the risk of developing ovarian cancer by 20 percent to 25 percent.
• Smoking: All forms of tobacco, including cigarettes, cigars, and pipes, increase the risk of mucinous carcinoma. The more and longer you smoke, the higher the risk, but it decreases over time after quitting.
• Height: Tall women have a slightly increased risk of ovarian cancer, which researchers believe may be linked to developmental factors, including growth and puberty hormones.
• Overweight or obesity: Obesity increases the lifetime risk of ovarian cancer by approximately 2 percent, and it may also adversely affect the overall survival of women with ovarian cancer. Leading a sedentary lifestyle also increases risk.
• Family cancer syndromes: Up to 25 percent of ovarian cancers are linked to inherited gene mutations that are part of family cancer syndromes. For instance, a type of Lynch syndrome, an inherited condition that leads to the development of numerous polyps in the colon and rectum, can increase ovarian cancer risk. Other family cancer syndromes include hereditary breast and ovarian cancer syndrome, Peutz-Jeghers syndrome, and MUTYH-associated polyposis.
• Family history of certain cancers: Women with a family history of breast cancer, as well as those with a history of colorectal, uterine, or pancreatic cancer, have an increased risk of developing ovarian cancer.
• Menstruation factors: Starting periods before age 11 or entering menopause after 55 may increase the risk of ovarian cancer.
• Late first full-term pregnancy: Women who have their first full-term pregnancy after age 35 are at increased risk of ovarian cancer.
• Talcum powder: The use of asbestos-containing talcum powder on the genitals is more clearly linked to ovarian cancer, but asbestos-free talcum powder is still a possible concern.

Some factors also appear to reduce ovarian cancer risk. These include the following:

• Female reproductive surgeries: Tubal ligation (cutting or blocking the fallopian tubes) and salpingectomy (removal of the fallopian tubes) both lower a woman’s lifetime risk of ovarian cancer. A hysterectomy (removal of the uterus) can also reduce ovarian cancer risk, especially when combined with the removal of the fallopian tubes and ovaries (bilateral salpingo-oophorectomy). Women with BRCA1 or BRCA2 mutations who have a higher risk of ovarian cancer may be offered a bilateral salpingo-oophorectomy to reduce their risk further.
• Giving birth and breastfeeding: Having children lowers the risk of ovarian cancer, with a more significant reduction for those who have more children. Breastfeeding also decreases this risk. This may be because pregnancy and breastfeeding suppress ovulation, and fewer ovulations over a lifetime are associated with a lower risk of ovarian cancer.
• Birth control pills: Using contraceptive pills may reduce the risk of ovarian cancer, with greater risk reduction associated with more prolonged use. This lowered risk persists for decades, even after discontinuing the medication. However, birth control pills increase the risk of breast cancer and cervical cancer to some degree.

Ovarian cancer can remain undetected for years, and there is currently no screening test for it. If you are BRCA-positive, it’s essential to have regular pelvic exams and see a gynecologist frequently. Sometimes, genetic testing is recommended.

Your health care provider will ask about your health history, including past symptoms, risk factors, and medical issues. The provider may also inquire about your family history of ovarian or breast cancer and family cancer syndromes. He or she may perform pelvic and rectal exams to check for unusual changes in the reproductive organs and feel the abdomen for lumps, tenderness, bloating, or organ enlargement, particularly of the liver or spleen.

Tests

The following tests may also be performed:

• Pelvic or transvaginal ultrasound: Ultrasounds help detect ovarian tumors and determine if they are solid or fluid-filled cysts. They also assess the shape, size, and internal appearance of the ovary, identify abnormalities in other pelvic organs, and check for fluid buildup in the abdomen.
• Tumor marker tests: If a growth is detected in the ovary, tumor marker tests are performed next. Tumor markers are substances in the blood, tissues, or bodily fluids. Several tumor markers are measured to diagnose ovarian cancer.
• Other imaging tests: A computed tomography (CT) scan, MRI, and positron emission tomography (PET) scan can detect whether ovarian cancer has spread to other organs, tissues, or lymph nodes. A chest X-ray may be used to see if the cancer has spread to the lungs.
• Laparoscopy: During a laparoscopy, a small incision is made in the abdomen, and a thin tube called a laparoscope is inserted into the abdominal cavity. Surgical instruments can be used through the laparoscope to remove small tissue samples.
• Laparotomy: A laparotomy is a type of biopsy that diagnoses, stages, and treats the cancer in one procedure. The surgeon makes a large incision in the abdomen to examine and remove the tumor, as well as tissue samples from various pelvic and abdominal areas to check for spread. These samples are sent to a lab for analysis.
• Fine needle aspiration (FNA): FNA is a type of biopsy used to collect a small tissue sample from a lump in the body.
• Complete blood count (CBC): A CBC measures the quantity and quality of white blood cells, red blood cells, and platelets. It can check whether there is anemia due to long-term vaginal bleeding.
• Paracentesis: During a paracentesis, a hollow needle is inserted into the abdominal cavity to remove fluid buildup (ascites). The fluid is then analyzed for cancer cells.
• Blood chemistry tests: Specific chemicals in the blood, such as hormones and lactate dehydrogenase (LDH), are measured. Higher levels of LDH may be a sign of an ovarian germ cell tumor. The levels of estrogen, testosterone, and inhibin may be higher if ovarian stromal tumors are present.
• Genetic testing: Genetic testing may be helpful in setting a treatment plan.

Complications of ovarian cancer may include:

• Ascites
• Bowel obstruction of the small or large intestines
• Constipation
• Pleural effusion
• Bladder obstruction
• Fatigue
• Nausea
• Vomiting
• Swelling in the legs, feet, or ankles
• Anemia
• Disordered nutrition
• Death

If you are diagnosed with ovarian cancer, your doctor will recommend treatment options based on factors such as the cancer type, its stage, tumor size after surgery, your desire to have children, and your age and overall health. The common approach is surgery followed by chemotherapy, but there are also other options.

1. Surgery

Surgery is the primary treatment for ovarian cancer. It is often performed to remove a mass to determine if it is cancerous. Once cancer is confirmed, the surgeon stages the cancer by assessing how far it has spread from the ovaries. These are the types of surgery for ovarian cancer:

• Salpingo-oophorectomy: This is the surgical removal of one or both fallopian tubes and ovaries.
• Hysterectomy: This is the surgical removal of the womb.
• Pelvic or para-aortic lymphadenectomy: This removes the lymph nodes located in the abdomen and pelvis.
• Omentectomy: Omentectomy removes the omentum, a layer of fatty tissue covering the intestines, where ovarian cancer often spreads.
• Cytoreduction (debulking): During surgery for ovarian cancer, if the cancer has spread, the surgeon will remove as much of the tumor as possible during a process called debulking to improve the effectiveness of other treatments. This may involve removing the ovaries, uterus, cervix, fallopian tubes, omentum, and any visible tumors in the pelvic and abdominal areas. In some cases, parts of the spleen, lymph nodes, liver, or intestines may also be removed. If debulking isn’t possible due to your health or tumor attachment to other organs, chemotherapy is used to treat the remaining tumor.
• Laparoscopic surgery: Laparoscopic or robotic-assisted laparoscopic surgery may be performed initially to assess whether more extensive surgery is beneficial. If not, chemotherapy is initiated.

2. Chemotherapy

Chemotherapy uses anticancer drugs to kill cancer cells and is often given after ovarian cancer surgery. In some cases, it’s administered before surgery to shrink the tumor, which is called neoadjuvant chemotherapy. A combination of medications is usually used, with the most common drug being a platinum-based drug such as carboplatin, either alone or with paclitaxel.

Chemotherapy may also be delivered directly into the abdomen via an abdominal port (intraperitoneal chemotherapy) or during surgery as hyperthermic intraperitoneal chemotherapy (HIPEC).

3. Radiation Therapy

Radiation therapy uses high-energy X-rays to target rapidly growing cancer cells. While it is rarely used for ovarian cancer, it can target tumors and minimize damage to healthy tissue. It may be used to eliminate any remaining cancer cells in the pelvic area.

Stereotactic ablative radiotherapy (SABR), a type of radiotherapy, may be used if the cancer has spread to a single area, such as a lymph node, a lung, or the brain.

4. Targeted Therapy

Targeted therapy drugs work by blocking or slowing the growth and spread of cancer at a cellular level. They target specific molecules, often proteins, that cancer cells need to survive and multiply. These molecules are typically produced by cancer-causing genes or the cells themselves. By interfering with these molecules or genes, targeted therapies aim to disrupt cancer’s ability to grow and spread.

5. Immunotherapy

Cancer can sometimes evade the immune system. Immunotherapy helps boost the immune system’s ability to fight cancer.

6. Hormone Therapy

Hormones or hormone-blocking medications can be used to treat certain ovarian tumors by reducing estrogen levels or preventing estrogen from reaching tumors, thereby slowing their growth. This treatment, often used for low-grade cancers, may be an option if the cancer returns and you want to avoid or delay more chemotherapy. Drugs such as tamoxifen and letrozole, commonly used for breast cancer, are typically used.

7. Maintenance Therapy

Maintenance therapy may be used after surgery and chemotherapy to prevent microscopic disease and delay tumor growth. This can involve continuing targeted treatments such as bevacizumab, a poly(ADP-ribose) polymerase (PARP) inhibitor, or both. Depending on the agent and individual factors, these treatments are typically employed for an additional one to three years.

Mindset can have a significant influence on how women cope with and manage ovarian cancer, which affects their emotional, mental, and physical health. A positive or hopeful attitude can enhance emotional resilience, reduce anxiety and depression, and improve treatment adherence, thus potentially leading to a better prognosis. Managing stress through a proactive mindset can strengthen the immune system by focusing on controllable factors such as diet and exercise.

Additionally, patients with a positive outlook are more likely to seek and accept support from friends and family, thus further contributing to their overall well-being during treatment and recovery.

Currently, there are no proven alternative approaches to ovarian cancer. However, various nutraceuticals and botanicals are being investigated for their anticancer effects.

As all the natural approaches mentioned below require further research, please consult your health care provider before trying them. The following items only show encouraging results in cell and animal studies, and until they can be tested in humans, their safety and effectiveness remain unknown.

1. Herbal Medicinals

• Traditional Chinese medicine: A 2019 study examined patients with ovarian cancer who were registered in Taiwan’s medical database from 1997 to 2012. After comparing 101 traditional Chinese medicine (TCM) users with 101 nonusers, the researchers discovered that TCM users were 55 percent less likely to die during the study period than nonusers. A 2019 meta-analysis of 18 studies involving 975 participants found combining TCM with Western medicine to be an effective and safe treatment for ovarian cancer patients following surgery and chemotherapy.
• Guizhi-fuling wan: Guizhi-fuling wan is a TCM formula comprising several medicinal herbs such as cinnamon twig, poria mushroom, peach kernel, tree peony root bark, and red peony root. This formulation has been found to suppress ovarian cancer cell proliferation and tumor growth in a cell study, help the host overcome chemotherapy resistance in ovarian cancer in a rat model, and induce cancer cell death in mice.
• Ginger: In a cell line study, ginger significantly slowed the growth of various ovarian cancer cell types. It also blocked the activation or lowered the levels of certain proteins that are overly active in ovarian cancer or help tumors grow blood vessels. A researcher at the University of Michigan (U-M) Comprehensive Cancer Center even stated that ginger caused cell death at a rate equal to or greater than platinum-based chemotherapy drugs. “In multiple ovarian cancer cell lines, we found that ginger induced cell death at a similar or better rate than the platinum-based chemotherapy drugs typically used to treat ovarian cancer,” Dr. Jennifer Rhode, a gynecologic oncology fellow at the U-M Medical School, said in a press release.
• Barbed skullcap (Scutellaria barbata): Barbed skullcap has been used in TCM to relieve throat pain and swelling and treat edema and hemorrhoids. One 2003 study found that water-based barbed skullcap extracts could kill 100 percent (11 out of 11) of the fast-growing ovarian cancer cell lines tested, including SKOV3 and CAOV3. According to Memorial Sloan Kettering Cancer Center, no adverse effects have been reported with its use.

2. Dietary Supplements

• Quercetin: Quercetin is a powerful antioxidant flavonoid, specifically a flavonol, found in various plants such as onions, grapes, berries, cherries, broccoli, and citrus fruits. A 2013 cell line study found that quercetin inhibits the growth of ovarian cancer cells and makes some of them more responsive to cisplatin and paclitaxel treatments. A 2017 mouse model showed that quercetin triggers ovarian cancer cell death through two key processes: mitochondrial damage and caspase activation (caspase helps with programmed cell death). Researchers suggest that quercetin could be a promising treatment for ovarian cancer or a helpful addition to other cancer drugs, as it destroys cancer cells without harming healthy ones. However, until quercetin can be tested in humans with ovarian cancer, it is too early to recommend it as a treatment for such.
• Curcumin: Curcumin is a natural compound found in turmeric, a spice made from the root of the Curcuma longa plant. As per a 2023 review, curcumin may slow the progression of ovarian cancer, make cancer cells more sensitive to chemotherapy, and lessen the side effects of treatment. It also exhibits strong anticancer potential by promoting cell death, suppressing cell growth, inducing autophagy (cell turnover and repair), and inhibiting tumor spread. However, curcumin’s low absorption rate has limited its use in medical treatments. Researchers have addressed this issue by placing curcumin inside nanostructured lipid carriers (NLCs), which release curcumin gradually over time, improving absorption. A 2017 study found that using NLCs to deliver curcumin can significantly enhance its cancer-fighting abilities, offering a promising new method for treatment.
• Epigallocatechin-3-gallate (GCG): EGCG is the primary catechin present in green tea. A 2004 cell line study found that EGCG played an important role in slowing the growth of ovarian cancer cells. It has been shown to inhibit cancer cell growth effectively. EGCG also causes cancer cells to undergo programmed cell death and stops them from progressing through their growth cycle.

3. Natural Compounds

• Resveratrol: Resveratrol is a compound found in grapes, red wine, peanuts, pistachios, blueberries, and cranberries. It’s a potent antioxidant and is used to prevent or treat heart disease, diabetes, and osteoarthritis and improve memory. In addition to inhibiting ovarian cancer cell growth and helping trigger processes that lead to the cells breaking down and dying in lab studies, a 2015 mouse model showed that resveratrol reduced glucose uptake by cancer cells, exhibited strong anticancer effects, and helped prevent tumor regrowth after cisplatin treatment, thus potentially extending disease-free survival.
• Kenaf seed oil: Kenaf (Hibiscus cannabinus) is a fiber plant from the Malvaceae family, with its leaves and seeds possessing antioxidant, anticancer, and antibacterial properties. A 2011 study found that kenaf seed oils from three different extraction methods were all cytotoxic to the CAOV3 cell line in a dose-dependent manner, likely by inducing programmed cell death.

While there is no sure way to prevent ovarian cancer, there are measures one can take to reduce the risk of developing it. Some of these strategies cannot be implemented at the same time. They include the following:

• Undergo genetic counseling and DNA testing if you suspect you may carry genes or genetic conditions that could increase your risk.
• Consider using birth control pills that contain estrogen and progesterone. Be aware, however: A side effect of these pills is a slight increase in the risk of deep vein thrombosis, heart attack, and stroke.
• Drink tea. Tea consumption, especially green tea, is inversely associated with ovarian cancer risk.
• Maintain a healthy weight.
• Opt for low-fat milk instead of whole milk. A 2020 Chinese meta-analysis of 29 case-control studies showed that high consumption of whole milk may increase the risk of ovarian cancer. Inversely, high consumption of low-fat milk, calcium, and vitamin D reduced risk.
• Consider having children and breastfeeding.
• Consider tubal ligation or a hysterectomy if you have heightened risk.
• Avoid smoking.
• Avoid exposure to toxins.
• Treat medical conditions, such as diabetes and endometriosis, that can increase the risk of developing ovarian cancer.
• Exercise regularly.
• Keep a consistent sleep schedule, sleeping seven or eight hours nightly.

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